Modal verbs

A/Summary

Introduction to modal verbs • 91

The modal verbs (or 'modal auxiliary verbs') are will,would, shall, should, can,

could, may, might, must, need, ought to and dare.

I must go now. We can park here.

There are some expressions with have and be whichhave similar meanings to the

modal verbs.

I have to go now. We're allowed to park here.

These expressions can have other forms such as a pasttense or a to-infinitive.

I had to hurry to get here. We asked to beallowed to go.

Modal verbs express meanings such as necessity andpossibility. We can use

modal verbs to tell or allow people to do things; orwe can use them to say how

certain or uncertain we are.

Necessity: must, have (got) to, needn't and mustn't• 92

I must goto the bank.

Obligation and advice: should, ought to etc • 93

You should answer the letter.

Permission: can, could, may, might and beallowed to • 94

We can leave our luggage at the hotel.

Certainty: will, must and can't

Mandy will be in London now.

Probability: should and ought to • 96

The rain should stop soon.

Possibility: may, might, can and could • 97

The keys may be inmy coat pocket.

Ability: can, could and be able to • 98

Most people can swim.

Unreal situations: would • 99

Six weeks' holiday would be nice.

Habits: will, would and used to • 100

People will leave litter everywhere.

The verb dare • 101

I daren't go up on the roof.

OVERVIEW: theuse of modal verbs • 102

B/ Introduction to modal verbs

1 A modalverb is always the first word in the verb phrase. It always has the same

form and never has an ending such as 5, ingot ed. Aftera modal verb we put a bare

infinitive.

It will be windy. You should look after your money.

A modal does not have a to-infinitive after it (exceptought).

You must give me your honest opinion.

NOTE

a Some modal verbs have a spoken weak form. •55(1)

b We can stress a modal if we want to put emphasis on itsmeaning.

You really must be quiet. (It is very necessary.)

You 'may beright. (It is not certain.)

c Will and would have the written shortforms 'll and 'd.

2 Like the other auxiliary verbs (be, have and do),modal verbs are important in

negatives, questions, tags and so on. A modal verb canhave not after it, and it

comes before the subject in questions.

Your desk shouldn't be untidy.

How should I organize my work?

. You should take notes, shouldn't you? ~ Isuppose I should.

We do not use do with a modal. NOT HOW do Ishould organize my work?

3 A modal verb does not usually have a tense. It canrefer to the present or the future.

Present: We must know now. The letter mightbe in my bag.

Future: We must know soon. The lettermight arrive tomorrow.

For the past we use had to, was able to etc, orwe use a modal verb + have.

Past: We had to know then. The letter mighthave arrived yesterday.

But in some contexts could, would, should and mightare past forms of can, will,

shall and may.

I can't remember the formula. (present)

I couldn't remember the formula. (past)

We may have problems. (direct speech)

We thought we might haveproblems. (indirect speech)

4 A modal verb can go with the perfect, the continuousor the passive.

Perfect: I may have shown you this before.

Continuous: They may be showing the film ontelevision.

Passive: We may be shown the results later.

Perfect + continuous: You must have been dreaming.

Perfect + passive: The car must have beenstolen.

5 There are some expressions with have and bewhich have very similar meanings to

the modal verbs.

a The main expressions are have to, be able to, beallowed to and be going to.

You have to fill in this form. I was able tocancel the order.

There are some important differences in the use ofmodal verbs and these

expressions, e.g. must and have to, •92; can/may and be allowed to, • 94; and

could and wasable to, • 98. For will and be going to, • 74; and for beto, • 76.

b We can use have to, be able to, etc to talkabout the past.

We had to do a test yesterday. NOT We must do a test yesterday.

We can also use them in the infinitive and ing-form.

I want to be allowed to take part. NOT to may take part

Being able to see properly is important. NOT canning to see

A modal verbdoes not have an infinitive or ing-form.

c We sometimes put a modal verb in front of haveto, be able to etc, or we use two

such expressions together.

You will have to hurry. I might be able to doa little revision.

We ought to be allowed to decide for ourselves.

People used to have to wash clothes by hand.

You aren't going to be able to finish it intime.

But we cannot use two modals together. NOT You willmust hurry.

6 Some nouns, adjectives and adverbs and ordinaryverbs have similar meanings to

modal verbs.

There's no chance of everything being ready ontime.

It's essential/vital you keep me informed.

They'll probably give us our money back. • 214

The passengers managed to scramble to safety. • 98(3a)

C/ Necessity: must, have (got) to, needn't and

mustn't

1 Must and have to

a This is a rule in a British Rail leaflet about aYoung Person's Railcard.

You must buy your ticket before starting yourjourney, unless you join the train at

a station where ticket purchase facilities are notavailable.

Now look at this conversation.

Abigail: There isn't much time to spare. You'dbetter buy your ticket on the train.

Phil: I can't do that. I want to use this railcard.I have to buy the ticket before

I get on.

When we talk about necessity in the present or thenear future, we can use either

must or have(got) to. But there is a difference in meaning. We normally use must

when the speaker feels the necessity and have to whenthe necessity is outside the

speaker.

You must buy your ticket before starting yourjourney.

I have to buy the ticket before I get on thetrain.

The leaflet uses must because the rule is madeby British Rail, and they are the

authority. Phil uses have to because the ruleis not his, and the necessity results

from the situation.

You must...is a way of ordering someone to do something. You have to... is a way

of telling them what is necessary in the situation.

You must fill in a form. (I'm telling you.)

You have to fill in a form. (That's the rule.)

I must go on a diet. I'm getting overweight.

I have to go on a diet. The doctor has told meto.

NOTE

a Compare the meaning of must and have to inquestions.

Must I write these letters now? (= Do you insist that I write them?)

Do I have to write these letters now? (= Is it necessary for me to write them?)

b We can also use be to for an order by a personin authority. • 76(2)

The doctor says I'm to go on a diet.

But have to is much more common than be to.

c Be obliged to and be required to alsoexpress necessity. Both expressions are rather formal.

You are obliged to/are required to sign adeclaration.

b We sometimes use must "for things wethink are necessary because they are so

enjoyable.

You really must watch this new Canadian soapopera.

We must have lunch together.

c Must has no past tense, no perfect orcontinuous form and no infinitive or

ing-form. We use have to instead.

I had to pay £15 for this railcard last week.

We've had to make a few changes.

I'm having to spend a lot of time travelling.

I wasn't expecting to have to look after thechildren.

It's no fun having to stand the whole journey.

You will have to pay the full standard singlefare.

2 Have to andhave got to

a Both have to and have got to expressthe same meaning: necessity which is outside

the speaker.

I have to take an exam in June.

I have got to take/I've got to take anexam in June.

Have to iscommon in both formal and informal English, but have got to is informal.

b We use got only in simple tenses, but haveto has all the forms of an ordinary verb.

Father was so ill we were having to sit up withhim night after night.

I don't want to have to punish you.

We cannot use got here.

In the past simple had to is more usual than hadgot to.

I couldn't go to the dance. I had to finish myproject.

c With have to, we use do in negativesand questions.

We don't have to pay. Does the winner haveto make a speech?

With have got to, we use have as anauxiliary.

We haven't got to pay. Has the winner gotto make a speech?

For American English, • 303(5c).

In past simple negatives and questions we almostalways use did... have to, not

had... got to.

Did you have to wait long?

3 No necessity

a Needn't and don't have to

We use needn't and don't have to/haven't gotto to say that something is

unnecessary.

You need not always make an appointment.

You do not always have to make anappointment.

Often we can use either form. But there is adifference similar to the one between

must and have(got) to. With needn't, the lack of necessity is felt by thespeaker.

With don't have to, it results from thesituation.

You needn't take me to the station. I can walk.

You don't have to take me to the station.Alan's giving me a lift.

b Need as an ordinary verb

Need to meansthe same as have to.

The colours have to/need to match.

The figure doesn't have to/doesn't need to beexact.

NOTE

a Americans use don't/doesn't need to, not needn't.• 303(9)

b For This carpet needs cleaning, •113(1).

c We can also use need as a noun, especially inthe phrase no need.

There's no need to get up early.

c Needn't have done and didn't need to

We use these forms to talk about an unnecessary pastaction. If something

happened which we now know was unnecessary, we usuallyuse needn't

have done.

We needn't have made these sandwiches. No one'seaten any.

(We made them, but it wasn't necessary.)

Didn't need to usuallymeans that the action did not happen.

We didn't need to make any sandwiches. We knewthat people were bringing

their own. (Wedidn't make them because it wasn't necessary.)

But we can also use didn't need to forsomething unnecessary that actually

happened.

We didn't need to make these sandwiches. Noone's eaten any.

We can also use didn't have to.

Fortunately we didn'thave to pay for the repairs.

4 Necessity not to do something

a We use mustn't to tell someone not to dosomething.

You mustn't forget your railcard. We mustn'tlose this game.

The meaning is the same as Don't forget yourrailcard. The speaker feels the

necessity. Compare You must remember your railcard.

b Mustn't has a different meaning from needn't/don'thave to. Compare these

sentences.

I needn't run. I've got plenty of time.

I mustn't run. I've got a weak heart.

c We can use mustn't or may not to forbidsomething.

Students must not/may not use dictionaries inthe examination.

Here the speaker or writer is the authority, theperson who feels the necessity to

stop the use of dictionaries. But if we are talkingabout rules made by other people,

we use can't or be allowed to. • 94(3)

We can't use/We aren't allowed to usedictionaries in the exam.

D/ Obligation and advice: should, ought to etc

1 Should and ought to

a We use shouldand ought to for obligation and advice, to say what is the rightthing

or the best thing to do.

They should build/ought to build morehospitals.

People shouldn't leave/oughtn't to leavelitter all over the place.

You should go I ought to go to York. It's an interestingplace.

I shouldn't leave/oughtn't to leavethings until the last moment.

Who should we invite?/ Who ought we toinvite1.

Should and oughtto are not as strong as must.

You should tour in a group. (It's a good idea to.)

You must tour in a group. (It's essential.)

But in formal rules should is sometimes a morepolite and less emphatic

alternative to must.

Passengers should check in at least one hourbefore departure time.

b We can use the continuous or perfect after shouldand ought to.

I should be doing some work really.

You should have planted these potatoes lastmonth.

After all the help Guy has had, he ought to havethanked you.

The perfect here means that the right action did nothappen. Compare had to,

where the action really happened.

I ought to have left a tip.

(Leaving a tip was the right thing to do, but I didn'tleave one.)

I had to leave a tip.

(It was necessary to leave atip, so I did leave one.)

2 Had better

We also use had better to say what is the bestthing to do in a particular situation.

You're ill. You had better see a doctor, NOT You have better see a doctor.

I'd better tidy this room up.

Had better is strongerthan should or ought to, although it is not as strong as must.

I'd better tidy up means that I am going to tidy up, because it is the best thing to do.

The negative is had better not.

Come on. We'd better not waste any time.

NOTE

With had better we normally use an indirectquestion rather than a direct one.

Do you think I'd better call a doctor?

3 Be supposed to

We use be supposed to for what people expect tohappen because it is the normal

way of doing things or because it has been ordered orarranged.

When you've paid, you're supposed to take yourreceipt to the counter over

there. ~ Oh, I see.

Is this food supposed to be kept cool? ~ Yes, put it in the fridge.

This jacket is supposed to have been cleaned,but it looks dirty.

You weren't supposed to mention my secret. ~Oh, sorry.

We can also use be supposed to for what peoplesay.

Too much sugar is supposed to be bad for you.

E/Permission: can, could, may, might and be

allowed to

1 Giving and refusing permission

a We use can or may to give permission. Mayis formal and used mainly in writing.

You can use my phone if you like. Anyone canjoin the club.

Any person over 18 years may/can apply to jointhe club.

b We use the negative forms cannot/can't and maynot to refuse permission.

I'm afraid you can't just walk in here.

Customers may not bring their own food intothis cafe.

NOTE

Here are some other ways of refusing permission.

Tourists must not take money out of the country.• 92(4c)

Smoking is prohibited/is not permitted on schoolpremises.

No picnics. (mainlywritten)

2 Asking permission

We use can, could or may to askpermission.

Can Itake your umbrella? ~ Of course you can.

Could Iborrow this calculator, please? ~ Well, I need it actually.

May we come in?~ Of course.

Here could means a more distant possibilitythan can and so is less direct, more

tentative. May is rather formal.

NOTE

We can also use might to ask permission, but itis both formal and tentative.

I was wondering if I might borrow your car for theafternoon.

3 Talking about permission

a We sometimes talk about permission when we are notgiving it or asking for it. To

do this, we can use can referring to thepresent or the future and could referring to

the past.

I can stay up as late as I like. My parentsdon't mind.

These yellow lines mean that you can't parkhere.

At one time anyone could go and live in the USA.

We cannot use may here because we are notgiving or asking permission.

NOT I may stay up late.

b We can also use be allowed to.

I'm allowed to stay up as late as I like.

Was Tinaallowed to leave work early?

You won't be allowed to take photos.

Be allowed to meansthat the permission does not depend on the speaker or the

person spoken to. Compare these two sentences.

May weleave early, please? (= Will youallow it?)

Are weallowed to leave early? (= Isit allowed?/What is the rule?)

c We use be allowed to (not can or may)in the perfect and the infinitive.

Newspapers have not been allowed to report whatis going on.

I didn't expect to be allowed to look round thefactory.

d In the past, we make a difference between generalpermission and permission

which resulted in an action. For general permission weuse could or was/were

allowed to.

Years ago visitors to Stonehengecould go/were allowed to go right up to the

stones.

For an action that someone did with permission, we usewas/were allowed to.

The five students were allowed to go right upto the stones.

F/ Certainty: will, must and can't

1 We can use these verbs to say that something iscertainly true or untrue.

There's someone at the door. ~ It'll be the milkman.

You got up at four o'clock! Well, you must betired.

This can't be Roland's textbook. He doesn't dophysics.

Will expressesa prediction. It means that something is certainly true, even though

we cannot see that it is true. Must means thatthe speaker sees something as

necessarily and logically true. Can't meansthat the speaker sees it as logically

impossible for something to be true.

Must and can'tare opposites.

The bill can't beso much. There must be some mistake.

NOTE

a In informal English we can sometimes use have(got) to for logical necessity.

There has to/has got to be some mistake.

b We can also use be sure/bound to.

Carl is sure to/is bound to be sitting in a cafesomewhere.

c For can't and mustn't in the USA, • 303(10).

2 In questions we normally use can or will.

Who will/can that be at the door? Can itreally be true?

But can for possibility has a limited use instatements. • 97(2e)

3 We can use the continuous or the perfect after will,must and can't.

Where's Carl?~ He'll be sitting in a cafesomewhere, I expect.

The bus is ten minutes late. It must be coming soon.

This glass is cracked. Someone must have dropped it.

I can't have gone to the wrong house. I checked the address.

Compare must have done expressing certaintyabout the past and had to

expressing a past necessity.

This film seems very familiar. I must have seen itbefore.

Everyone had been telling me about the film. I hadto see it.

But for another meaning of had to, • (5).

4 Must do is usually a kind of order, a way oftelling someone to do something. Must

be doing usuallymeans it is logically necessary that something is happening.

You've got exams soon. You must work. (order)

Paul isn't at home. He must be working. (logical necessity)

5 We can use would, had to and couldn't whensomething seemed certain in the past.

There was someone at the door. It would be themilkman.

The fingerprints were the husband's, so he had to bethe murderer.

Harold stared in amazement. It couldn't betrue!

G/ Probability: should and ought to

We use should and ought to to say thatsomething is probable, either in the present

or the future.

They should have/ought to have ourletter by now.

We should know/ought to know the resultsoon.

In the negative the usual form is shouldn't.

We shouldn't have long to wait.

Should and oughtto have the additional meaning 'if all goes well'. We cannot use

these verbs for things going wrong.

The train should be on time. but NOT The train should be late.

NOTE

To express probability we can also use be likely to orwill probably.

We're likely to know the result soon./We'll probably know theresult soon.

H/ Possibility: may, might, can and could

GOING TO LONDON

Leon: I may drive up to London on Saturday. There are one or twothings I need

to do there.

Simon: I'd go early if I were you. The motorway canget very busy, even on a

Saturday. You may get stuck in the traffic.

Leon: Well, I didn't want to go too early.

Simon: You could go on the train of course.

Leon: Yes, that may not be a bad idea. I mightdo that. Have you got a timetable?

Simon: I might have. I'll just have a look.

1 May and might

a We use may and might to say thatsomething is possibly true.

This old picture may/might be valuable.

That may not/might not be a bad idea.

We can also use may and might for anuncertain prediction or intention.

You may/might get stuck in traffic if you don'tgo early.

I'm not sure, but I may/might drive up to London on Saturday.

There is almost no difference in meaning, but may isa little stronger than might.

NOTE

a Might not has a short form.

That mightn't be a bad idea.

But mayn't is very old-fashioned. We use maynot.

b There are other ways of being less than certain inEnglish.

Perhaps/Maybe the picture is valuable.

It's possible the picture is valuable./There's apossibility the picture is valuable.

This toaster seems to/appears to work all right.

I think that'sa good idea.

We write the adverbmaybe as one word.

b We do not often use may or might inquestions.

Do you think you'll get the job?

c We can use the perfect or the continuous after mayand might.

I don't know where the paper is. I may have thrown itaway.

Tina isn't at home. She may be working late.

I might be playing badminton tomorrow.

d We can use a statement with might to make arequest.

If you're going to the post office, you might getsome stamps.

Might can alsoexpress criticism that something is not done.

You might wash up occasionally.

Someone might have thanked me for all mytrouble.

Could isalso possible here.

e We use might as well to say that something isthe best thing to do, but only

because there is no better alternative.

I can't repair this lamp. I might as well throwit away.

Do you want to go to this party? ~ Well, I suppose we mightas well.

H/ Possibility

2 Can and could

a We use can and could to suggestpossible future actions.

You can/could go on the train, of course.

We can/could have a party. ~ Yes, why not?

If we're short of money, I can/could sell myjewellery.

Can isstronger than could, which expresses a more distant possibility.

b We use can and could in requests. Couldis more tentative.

Can/Could you wait a moment, please?

Can/Could I have one of those leaflets, please?

We also use can for an offer.

I can lend you a hand. Can I give you alift?

c Can and could express only apossibility. They do not mean that something is likely

to happen.

We can/could have a party. ~ Yes, why not? (suggestion)

We may/might have a party. ~ Oh, really? (uncertain intention)

d For something that is possibly true, we use could.

Tina could be working late tonight.

The timetable could be in this drawer.

You could have forgotten to post the letter.

We can also use may or might here, butnot can.

For an uncertain prediction about the future, we alsouse could, may or might but

not can.

The motorway could be busy tomorrow.

e There is a special use of can to say thatsomething is generally possible.

You can make wine from bananas. Smoking can damageyour health.

Can oftenhas the meaning 'sometimes'.

Housewives can feel lonely. (= They sometimes feel lonely.)

The motorway can get busy. (= It sometimes gets busy.)

NOTE

Tend to has asimilar meaning.

Americans tend to eat a lot of meat.

Dog owners tend to look like their dogs.

f Can't and couldn't express impossibility.

She can't be very nice if no one likes her.

You can't/couldn't have seen Bob this morning.He's in Uganda.

Compare can't with may not/might not.

This answer can't be right. It must bewrong.

(= It is impossible for this answer to be right.)

This answer may not/might not be right. It may/mightbe wrong.

(= It is possible that thisanswer isn't right.)

3 Possibility in the past

May/might/could + perfect refers to something in the past that is possibly true.

Miranda may have missed the train.

(= Perhaps Miranda missed the train.)

The train might have been delayed.

(= Perhaps the train has been delayed.)

The letter could have got lost in the post.

(= It is possible that the letter has got lost in thepost.)

NOTE

Could have done canalso mean that a chance to do something was not taken. • 98(3d)

I could have complained, but I decided not to.

 I/Ability: can,could and be able to

1 Can and could

We use these verbs to say that something is possiblebecause someone has the

ability to do it. We use can for the presentand could for the past.

Nicola can play chess.

Can youdraw a perfect circle?

We can't move this piano. It's too heavy.

Nicola could play chess when she was six.

My grandfather could walk on his hands.

PAGE 124

can't

The negative of can is cannot , writtenas one word. It has a short form

As well as physical or mental ability, we also use can/couldfor a chance, an

opportunity to do something.

We can sit in the garden when it's nice.

When we lived in aflat, we couldn't keep a dog.

NOTE

a With some verbs we can use a simple tense forability.

I (can) speak French. We didn't/couldn'tunderstand the instructions.

b For can/could expressing a perception, e.g. Ican see a light, • 62(7).

2 Be able to

a Be able to in the present tense is a littlemore formal and less usual than can.

The pupils can already read/are already ableto read.

The duchess can fly/is able to fly anaeroplane.

b We use be able to (not can) in theperfect and the infinitive or ing-form.

Mr Fry has been ill for years. He hasn't been ableto work for some time.

It's nice to be able to relax.

Being able to speak the language is a great advantage.

c We use will be able to for future ability oropportunity.

When you have completed the course, you will beable to impress others with your

sparkling conversation.

One day people will be able to go on a packagetour of the solar system.

PAGE 125 99 Unreal situations: would

But we normally use can to suggest a possiblefuture action. • 97(2a)

We can discuss the details later.

3 Could and was/were able to

a In the past, we make a difference between a generalability and an ability which

resulted in an action. For a general ability we use couldor was/were able to.

Kevin could walk/was able to walk whenhe was only eleven months old.

But we use was/were able to to talk about anaction in a particular situation, when

someone had the ability to do something and did it.

The injured man was able to walk to a phonebox.

NOT The injured man could walk to a phone box.

We can also express the meaning with managed to orsucceeded in.

Detectives were able to/managed to identify themurderer.

Detectives succeeded in identifying themurderer.

b But in negatives and questions we can use either was/wereable to or could because

we are not saying that the action really happened.

Detectives weren't able to identify/couldn'tidentify the murderer.

Were you able to get/Could you get tickets for the show?

NOTE

It is safer to use was/were able to when thequestion with could might be understood as a

request. Could you get tickets? can be a requestmeaning 'Please get tickets'.

c We normally use could (not was/were ableto) with verbs of perception and verbs of

thinking.

I could see smoke on the horizon.

We could understand that Emily preferred to bealone.

d To say that someone had the ability or the chance todo something but didn't do it,

we use could have done.

He could have walked there, but he decided towait where he was.

I could have got tickets, but there were onlyvery expensive ones left.

NOTE

Could have done canalso express a past action that possibly happened. • 97(3)

The murderer could have driven here and dumpedthe body. We don't know yet if he did.

e Could can also mean 'would be able to'.

I couldn't do your job. I'd be hopeless at it.

The factory could produce a lot more goods ifit was modernized.

J/Unreal situations: would

1 Compare these sentences.

We're going to have a barbecue. ~ Oh, that'll be nice.

We're thinking of having a barbecue. ~ Oh, that wouldbe nice.

Here will is a prediction about the future,about the barbecue. Would is a

prediction about an unreal situation, about a barbecuewhich may or may not

happen.

There is often a phrase or clause explaining theunreal situation we are talking

about.

It would be nice to have a barbecue.

You wouldn't be much use in a crisis.

No onewould pay taxes if they didn't have to.

For would with an if-clause, • 257(4).

For would looking forward from the past, •80(2).

2 In a request would is less direct, moretentative than will.

Will/Would you pass me the sugar?

We can also use would in a statement to avoidsounding impolite, especially when

disagreeing with someone.

I wouldn't agree with that.

I would point out that this has caused us someinconvenience.

3 We also use the expressions would like and wouldrather.

a Would like is less direct than want, whichcan sound abrupt.

I want a drink. (direct, perhaps impolite)

I'd like a drink. (less direct, more polite)

Compare like and would like.

I like to climb/I like climbing thatmountain.

(I have climbed it a number of times, and enjoyed it.)

I'd like to climb that mountain.

(= I want to climb it.)

We can also use would with love, hate, enjoyand mind.

My sister would love to do deep-sea diving.

I'd hate to be in your shoes.

We'd enjoy a trip to Las Vegas. We've never been there before.

I wouldn't mind coming with you.

b Would rather means 'prefer' or 'wouldprefer'.

I'd rather walk than hang around for a bus.

The guide would rather we kept together.

Would yourather eat now or later?

Would rather is followed by a bare infinitive (walk) or a clause (we kepttogether).

The negative is would rather not.

I'd rather not take any risks.

NOTE

We can also use would sooner.

I'd sooner walk than hang around for a bus.

4 In some contexts we can use either would or shouldafter I/we. The meaning is the

same, but should is a little formal.

I would/should like to thank you for all you've done.

We wouldn't/shouldn't be able to get aroundwithout a car.

PAGE 127 101 The verb dare

K/Habits: will, would and used to

1 Will and would

We can use these verbs for habits, actions which arerepeated again and again. We

use will for present habits and would forpast habits.

Every day Jane will come home from school andring up the friends she's just been

talking to.

Warm air will rise.

In those days people would make their ownentertainment.

The meaning is almost the same as a simple tense: Everyday Jane comes home...

But we use will as a kind of prediction. Theaction is so typical and happens so

regularly that we can predict it will continue.

2 Used to

a Used to expresses a past habit or state.

I used to come here when I was a child.

Before we had television, people used to maketheir own entertainment.

I used to have a bicycle, but I sold it.

The meaning is similar to would for pasthabits, but used to is more common in

informal English. I used to come here meansthat at one period I came here

regularly, but then I stopped.

There is no present-tense form.

NOT -I use to come here now.

b Used is normally an ordinary verb. We use theauxiliary did in negatives and

questions.

There didn't use to be/never used to be so muchcrime.

What kind of books did you use to readas a child?

NOTE

Used as anauxiliary is rather old-fashioned and formal.

There used not to be so much crime. What kind ofbooks used you to read?

c Compare these sentences.

We used to live in the country. But then wemoved to London.

We're used to life/We're used to living inthe country now. But at first it was quite

a shock, after London.

In the second example are used to means 'areaccustomed to'.

L/ The verb dare

Dare can beeither a modal verb or an ordinary verb. It means 'not to be afraid to

do something'. We use it in negatives, questions andsimilar contexts, but not

usually to say that an action really happened.

I daren't look/don't dare (to) look at thebill.

Dare you say/Do you dare (to) say what you'rethinking?

The police didn't dare (to) approach thebuilding.

I don't expect many people dare (to) walk alonghere at night.

12 MODAL VERBS

NOTE

a Americans mostly use the patterns with to.

b We use How dare... ?for an angry protest.

How dare youspeak to me like that?

c I dare say means 'probably'.

• I dare say you'll feel better tomorrow.

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